Msc Strategic Marketing Assignment

1. Visit www. americanexpress. com to learn more about the different cards that American Express offers. Discuss the target market and positioning strategies for each and suggest other segments that American Express might be able to successfully target (20%/630-770 words) American Express manages a wide variety of products but their cards can be classified in two main card types if cards: personal and business cards. For each card type they offer a wide range of different utilities and privilege and can be sub divided in credit and charge cards.The difference between the credit and the charge cards available in each category is that the credit cards charge the card holder at the end of the month while the charge cards charge the card holder instantly. The American express business model is aimed at a very narrow premium customer base, which frequently make large transactions. As their customer base is narrow they are able to provide a higher customer service than their competitors (p p). The AmEx brand also holds a huge cultural value.Because of the brands positioning and corporate branding being the owner of an AmEx automatically improves this persons role as opinion leader for the personal social group. Personal Cards Card The range of personal AMEX cards is designed for personal use. The holder pays an annual fee depending on their card and in return they get the corresponding American Express services. Generally such services include no preset spending limits and luxury rewards for collecting points.Other cobranded American Express cards such as the British Airways American Express card also offer additional travel related advantages such as travel insurance or priority on waiting lists. (American express. com Target market In comparison to some of its competitors such as Visa and Mastercard, American express does charge for its services. This naturally shifts it away from these competitors and into a segment of its own. The target market of the personal AME X cards are high earning individuals, because they are high earners they are likely to be individuals professionally hold roles of esponsibility. Their personality is extravagant, extroverted and exploring yet sophisticated lifestyle. Small Business Cards Card The small business card range is designed by American Express to help small businesses manage their finances and reduce stress of running a business. The card holder is expected to pay a monthly fee and in return get the American Express services of no preset spending limit, the card can be extended to other business employees, access to airport lounges and a generous membership reward program.Target Market As the card types name suggests American Express targets small businesses segment with this range of cards. But they don’t target the whole of the small business segment. The card is designed for those businesses that regularly need to make payments for business purposes. The co-branded American Express and British A irways card suggests that they are targeting businesses whose employees are frequently traveling and would like to centrally control their company expenses. Missing segments,The existing range of AMEX cards target the high profile person and business that need to make large and regular payments. Though the product range can also be use online it’s mainly intended to be used offline with the physical card. Many of today’s payment transactions are made via the world wide web of which services such as Pay Pal and Citadel EFT. These 3rd party services are sometimes considered to be unreliable and no provide the exclusivity that American Express provides. This can withhold AMEX users from using their AMEX card online.An exclusive online payment service for AMEX users to provide payment services can increase the company’s online presence and stimulate the cards use. 2. How has American Express been able to help consumers shift their attitude toward usage of the card? Is American Express taking a proactive approach to managing its marketing environment? How? (20%/630-770 words) Shift of attitudes Proactive in managing its marketing environments? 3. Based on your knowledge of online buyer behavior – provide a proposal for an effective e-marketing campaign for American Express, using social media: Facebook, twitter, blogs etc.Critically discuss different ways to attract and retain consumers using different social media in the UK market. To answer this you may choose any two appropriate models of consumer behavior. (20%/630-770 words) Currently American Express is present of the World Wide Web’s main social networks. On Facebook AMEX? s global page got 2. 7 Million who â€Å"like† them, they also have separate pages for each country they have commercial activity in which on average tend to have some 7,000 likes each.The AMEX main Twitter account got 600K followers, on LinkedIn approximately 136,000 professionals are following th e company and on YouTube they got 12,000 subscribers. American express also attempts to connect with small businesses and professionals through offering business advice to them through blogs. In comparison American Express? s closest competitors Master Card and Visa both got 4. 5 million likes each on Facebook. On twitter Visa got 38,000 followers and Master Card 16,000. On Linked in MasterCard for 43,000 followers and Visa 48,000 and on YouTube 1000 and 4000 subscribers respectively.Because of the niche market targeted by American express and the enormous reach and noise of the World Wide Web, planning a carefully targeted campaign is of great importance to ensure the campaign is using resources efficiently. In their study Cap Gemini Ernst & Young (2002) found that modern day online consumers, when considering buying, are looking for the human values behind products and services, such as honesty, respect, dignity trust and fairness behind the products they buy.Since American expres s has two card types and thus two target markets its only logical that the online marketing campaign also be divided to target the two markets separately. Since AMEX got two quite specific target markets the use of social networks is recommended. Social networks allow you to target users on a wide variety of demographic, psychographic, lifestyle information and interests supplied voluntarily by its users. American Express brand is virtually universal, and a single geographic market is quite small.Therefor it is suggested that it is better to focus an e-marketing campaign, via social media, on a global or regional scale than national. The online marketing campaign directed towards the private users will focus on creating a worldwide viral marketing campaign on the popular social networks. For a period of 45 days, using a designated app on the AMEX Facebook page, users can enter a lottery to win one of five free Platinum American Express cards and an additional â‚ ¬2000. Users will be able to increase their chances of winning one of these cards in multiple ways.The first way would be though on a daily basis entering the application and participating in a multiple choice quiz, for every correct daily an additional entry is gained. The daily quiz will consist of questions related to the AMEX products and brand, designed to increase the knowledge about the AMEX products and aid the correct positioning of the brand in the mind of the consumer. The estimated marketing costs for the target market of private users is approximately â‚ ¬17,000, and has a potential reach +1,000,000 resulting in a maximum price per impression of â‚ ¬0. 17, much more efficient than the Facebook adds which recommend a charge of â‚ ¬0. 65 per click. Rivero, J. (2012) suggests that credit card marketing to consumers should be done â€Å"where your consumers and their friends are hanging out†. This campaign attempts to do just that: to get potential new users interested in an d reinforce the connection that existing consumers have with American Express through cultural influences. The people who have already like the American Express Facebook page will be the ones kicking of the campaign by being the first ones to enter the draw.Then when they invite their friends to join they are seen as opinion leaders within their social group. Those who are really interested in winning will engage in the daily quiz elaborating their knowledge of the brand and its products and in turn also convert them into 2nd generation opinion leaders for their social network. Facebook users will also be able to increase their chances of winning by inviting their Facebook â€Å"friends† to enter the competition via the AMEX application. For every friend that they have invited and has also entered the competition they will also gain an additional entry.For the business segment of the American Express target market linked in will be used to gain the public’s attention. This campaign will also take the shape of a competition but not a lottery. Entrepreneurs will be invited to submit start up business proposals. After initial screening, through popular vote on from the linked in community the most popular idea will gain a three year backing of American Express experts, full financial support and of course the AMEX cards and benefits to get up the new business idea. This campaign focuses gaining new business customers through having them engage with the brand through LinkedIn.The social role that AmEx would be taking on, of financing the best business idea, should be interpreted by other users and business as an act of social charity and an attempt to help the business world encouraging them to also use American Express for their business as they understand they provide better and premium services to businesses. 4. Critically analyze and evaluate consumer and customer management practices adopted by American Express and how consumers react to individ ualized consumer-organization interaction. (20%/630-770 words) . Discuss potential trends in buyer behavior in the Credit Card market over the next ten years. Identify companies in this sector which are responding well to the trends, and make recommendations how your company can update the way it engages with current and potential customers. (20%/630-770 words) Innovations One of the main innovations currently in the credit card market is the move to pay via smart phones. Systems are being developed to use a person’s smart phone as a mobile wallet without having to take out a physical credit card. 0 percent of people expect that their smartphones will eventually replace cash and credit cards. (Farrell, B. M. , 2013) Mastercard, Visa and Paypal are already experimenting with this alternative payment method though it must be mentioned that people or 35 or younger, are more inclined to use this innovation than the over 35? s. (Farrell, B. M. , 2013). Amex bought the online payme nt system Serve for $300 million in 2009 and launched its e-wallet service in 2011 (Pepitone, J. , 2011) in a reaction to Visa and PayPal launching a similar service first.The service is currently only available in the US (Johnson, A. R. , 2011) Since in many emerging markets they are taking a technology leap, i. e. directly starting with the latest technology, there exists a realistic possibility that they might also skip the credit card phase and move directly into having an e-wallet. American express could well establish their brand in these markets by providing e-wallet services as well as methods to accept e-wallet payments to local businesses. Competition,The standard credit card market is becoming saturated and its becoming increasingly difficult to obtain new customers or to make customers switch credit card issuer. Card issues have to offer increasingly more incentives to attract new customers and retain exisiting customers. American Express has the advantage of having a un ique brand within a select group of customers. But there are no restrictions for MasterCard or Visa to launch a cheap premium or platinum range in order to target and gain market share right in the heart of American Express? core business. Multi-Function cards. First Data Corporation (2011) suggests that in Brazil Banco Bradesco and in France Credit Agricole have been offering a card type that has the ability to access both credit and debit accounts. But neither have been considered a game changer. Multi-function cards are being increasingly interesting as consumers are starting to shift their preference to the debit card instead of the credit card. This is partially related to the currently ongoing financial crisis.With shifting trends and no game changing alternative this will be a future point of focus for credit card issuers to successfully introduce a hybrid card of this type as long as the demand proves sufficient. Co-Branded Cards Some of American Express? s biggest competito rs are teaming up with other large multinationals to offer exclusive co branded credit cards. For example IKEA and VISA have launched the IKEA Visa card allowing consumers to finance their purchases for up to three years among other benefits.American Express already hs a co-branded card with British Airways but with competition becoming increasingly tougher it is likely that card issuers will also try to issue cards via large multinational organizations. Bibliography: Farrell, B. M. , 2013, Not paying by smartphone? You soon will, many bet. The Boston Globe. Retrieved from http://www. bostonglobe. com/business/2013/03/20/payment-industry-executives-eye-mobile-future/XHi4XtUT9zkoloMd0m2biO/story. html First Data Corporation (2011) Four Important Trends Shaping the future of Credit Cards. Retireived from ttp://www. firstdata. com/downloads/thought-leadership/cc-trends-wp. pdf Johnson, A. R. (2011). â€Å"AmEx Looks Beyond Credit Cards†. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved from h ttp://online. wsj. com/article/SB10001424052970204552304577112611696189378. html Pepitone, J. , 2011. American Express dives into mobile payment with Serve. Retrieved from http://money. cnn. com/2011/03/28/technology/american_express_serve/index. htm Rivero, J. (2012). 3 Big Trends in Credit Card Marketing. Retrieved from: http://thefinancialbrand. com/22348/three-trends-in-credit-card-marketing/

Analyzing Single Effect “Hop-Frog” Essay

Edgar Allan Poe believed that a short story should be written to create a single effect. He believed that every detail or incident of the story should contribute to the effect. The overall effect of â€Å"Hop-Frog† is the theme of revenge that is seen throughout the story. There are certain details and situations in the story that add to creating this effect. At the beginning of the story, Poe shows us how Hop-Frog has been mistreated by the king just to get a laugh, and how the poor dwarf just puts up with it, again and again. He does this when he forces Hop-Frog to drink wine [http://search.targetwords.com/u.search?x=5977%7C1%7C%7C%7C%7Cwine%7CAA1VDw], even though it makes him almost mad. However, Hop-Frog gets his idea for his own â€Å"jest† for the masquerade party. He explains every detail of his plan to dress the king and his advisors up as the Eight Chained Ourang-Outangs. When the part about covering the men with tar is mentioned, the reader may become suspicious, as this seems a little bit strange. However, the king is none the wiser, and so the men are all outfitted in their costumes. Hop-Frog has planned everything carefully, but no one has suspected anything, which is probably the way Poe planned it. At the masquerade, Hop-Frog appears behind the group of men after pushing them towards the middle of the room and puts h is fateful plan into action. Upon setting the men on fire, he has sought his revenge. Poe develops the themes of revenge and evil throughout the story by setting the stage for a character whom has been mistreated and may just snap and seek their revenge. It becomes obvious that Hop-Frog is this character as Poe describes the king repeatedly making jokes with him as the target. In â€Å"Hop-Frog†, Poe’s single effect is not laid out as clearly as it is in one of his other works, â€Å"The Masque of the Red Death.† In this story, there are certain descriptions that make the theme of evil stand out to the reader.

Quote Expansions Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Quote Expansions - Coursework Example at social movements engaged in resistance fail to give a clear picture of what the reality is concerning issues of violence against homosexuals or women. Dean states that whatever is taught at school under patriotic narrative is erroneous because it states that the law is an answer to all problems related to racial and sexist problems because it has created a fair and neutral America. Spade shows that this narrative is wrong because if it were true, the US should not experience issues of inequality or violence against sexual minorities such as lesbians and gays (Spade 21). The author supports this by stating that resistant political theorists and social movements show the concept of state violence through exposing the fact that the entities that are supposed to protect minority groups such as gays and women have failed to do so showing that the state is not the ideal place where people should look for protection (Spade 21). In agreement with Spade, it is indeed true that looking at institutions and the possession of power is a narrow view could be detrimental towards understanding significant issues in the society. While it is true that the state can contribute towards the lessening of violence and discrimination against sexual and gender minorities through formulation and implementation of laws, state and the laws as institutions could be the same places where violence erupts. For example, in Dual Dualisms by Fausto-Sterling, the author addresses issues of male or female and how the International Olympics Committee (IOC) deconstructed this in the 1960s. Focusing on testing of athletes, she states, â€Å"In part, IOC rules reflect cold war political anxieties: during the 1968 Olympics, for instance, the IOC instituted ‘‘scientific’’ sex testing in response to rumors that some Eastern European competitors were trying to win glory for the Communist cause by cheating—having men masquerade as women to gain unfair advantage† (Fausto-Sterling 2). Here, the

Special Education Questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Special Education Questions - Essay Example And so are the ones who have had a history of emotional or sexual abuse. They all tend to display inadequate social skills and hence put their acceptance in the mainstream school culture in jeopardy. The difficulties confronting children with special needs (be it physical one or psychological ones) are all the more daunting. IDEA is the country’s special education law that expands to Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Though originally debated in the Congress in the 1970’s to ensure that children with special needs and disabilities have adequate opportunities to get appropriate public education, on par with children of normal ability. The recent amendments to the law were the most comprehensive, the final document of which was published last year. It sets out many key components of IDEA as well as guidelines for educational institutions in regard to providing â€Å"special education and related services to more than six million eligible children with disabilities†. The three important components of IDEA are: Discuss strategies that teachers can implement when working in general education classrooms with students with ADHD. Consider curriculum modifications, teacher behavior, organization and social skill development in your discussion. 1. Using active reading techniques- reading headings before reading chapter, skimming chapter to see what comes next, taking notes while reading, making up questions using chapter headings, practicing answering these questions while reading and reviewing major points. 4.Using the SQ4R method, Survey Question Read, Rite (write) Recite Review - surveying sections by looking over the main headings, making up questions, reading entire sections, writing answers to the questions, reciting the information out loud if possible, and finally reviewing their work. The increase in emotionally disturbed behavior among young children is both alarming in the present

Alternating Current and Direct Current Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Alternating Current and Direct Current - Essay Example The paper shed light upon several advantages and disadvantages of both DC and AC, how AC is converted into DC has also been discussed in this paper. It is important to note that DC is easier to analyze and has a plethora of other advantages but DC’s inability to convert different voltages is a big con because of which AC is used more widely then DC. However, the modern day electricity devices require DC so they come with automatic converters that instantly convert AC into DC. For transferring current over a long-distance DC is used because it is cost-effective but otherwise AC is used, another difference is that people in North America use AC and people in European counties use DC. These were some of the advantages, disadvantages and the most important differences between alternative current and direct current. Alternative current won over direct current in the 20th century when it was chosen over DC because people considered it more reliable, it had very few risks and this is why it was chosen as the standard current in North America, DC on the other hand had several major issues which were later sorted out and fixed. After fixing the major issues with DC several European countries chose it as their standard current, these days DC is being used in some of the elite European countries. It is necessary to have a circuit in order to distribute electricity. A circuit is usually made up of two wires which lead up to a device which uses electricity. In the case of alternating current, one of the two wires is positive and the other is either neutral which is also known as ground or negative, the two wires take their turns which enables sending electricity. In direct current the process works a little differently, the polarity in DC is always the same unlike in the case of AC where in polarity differs, in a DC circuit one wire is negative which means the other is sending electricity and is positive, the negative wire does not send electricity in a DC circuit. T here is no cyclic change and hence no hum in a DC, it is a fact that DC scores over AC in long-distances. In high-voltage transmission also DC is preferred because in AC a lot of electricity is lost, in DC less wastage takes place and this is why it scores over AC. AC scores over DC when it comes to converting DC into AC, it takes a lot of money to do that and it is not advisable to do so. DC should ideally be used only for long-distance transmission and AC in all other circumstances. Heating elements and light bulbs hardly care if the electricity supplied to them is DC or AC but it is very important to note that most modern day electrical gadgets require DC to work effectively. These days a transformer is used which consistently converts AC into DC for the devices to work effectively. In countries like Canada and the United States AC outlets have a voltage of 115 V and this is at 60 Hz. In European countries this is much different; most countries use 220 to 240 V which is about 50 Hz. It is also important to understand how peak voltage works, 115 V AC power usually has a peak voltage which is in the region of 163 V. Home and office electrical outlets are delivered electricity when the terminal has one hot and one neutral terminal. AC voltage is preferred by several people because a transformer is used to convert it into DC and it is very easy and a reliable source of getting direct current. A transformer consists of two inductors, the loops and turns present in these inductors are very different from each other. The number of turns usually determines the ratio of primary to secondary voltage. Electric generators have been made to produce alternating current, they can also produce DC but this can only be done by using a rectifier. A rectifier is made up of diodes which are also the most important part of a rectifier; the main use of a diode is that it allows the current to flow only in a single direction. DC power can also be converted into AC power; this can be done by using an inverter. Heating and arcing are two problems which are involved in producing AC and DC, alternating current can be generated at a much higher voltage than DC and the best part is that there will be fewer problems like heating and arcing. It is

Analysis of PJR Designs Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Analysis of PJR Designs - Case Study Example These are the first people who team up to register a company, corporation or a business set up. A majority of entrepreneurial skills enhances survival and copes with the stiff competition in the market. Most of these skills range from unique business strategies, development of consumer products through technology to guidelines for the achievements of the above (Daft, 2010: P 91). They provide guidance to companies, clear objectives, and priorities for successful ventures. Other tasks may entail supervising the acquisition of property, expansion, organization and all powers in disposing of assets. They are in charge of some department in the company and assume everyday administration of the company. In rank, they are below the executives but above the common employees. They possess a high understanding of the working of the company, very skilled in leading the other employees and managing them. They are to supervise, in person or through others, the workforce and make amicable decisions on behalf of the company (Daft, 2010: P 218). He has powers to appoint and fire employees deemed unproductive to ensure positive productivity. The productivity of a company is possible through determination of the number of units produced in a given period. The production responsibility squarely rests upon the production manager. The responsibility for ensuring that all systems are running and meeting deadlines lie to him. Acquisition of orders for production and assigning of personnel to do the job also forms part of his/her work. He gives directions on the work done, and when the need arises, gives recommendations on the staff or the types and kinds of machines required to enhance productivity (Daft, 2010: P 216). The export manager represents the company in the international business phase. The responsibility of attaining targets from international clients lay at his shoulders, and the meeting of deadlines (Tripathi & Reddy 2006: P. 95). The functions of shipping products for export and other modes of ensuring that the products reach the global market in time lies under him.  

Adults with Chronic illness Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Adults with Chronic illness - Essay Example The precise regions, in this case, are sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. However, infectious diseases are also claiming lives of people in developing countries due to poor nutrition and sanitation causes but still chronic diseases are leading killer condition in the world. Also, the elderly population is more vulnerable to chronic ailments, and their cases are on the rise (Pinquart, 2014). The chronic disease amongst adults supersedes the other killer infectious diseases like HIV/AIDS. Obesity is one of the worldwide problems as per the universal health organization report. Internationally, the chronic diseases are also threatening lives of various countries in developing and developed countries, for instance in America, the prevalence of chronic disease is high and, as a result, affects the financial and public health. The condition has also contributed to fast growing of older adult’s population, and other risk factors. In developing countries such Kenya, chronic diseases a re on the rise and mostly the adults are affected (Pinquart, 2014). It also affects the youth significantly because of the lifestyle reasons. On the other lower middle income, chronic diseases like diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and diabetes also significantly affect medium and rich countries more than infectious diseases affect them. At the local scenario, a good example is Bronx New York the issue of chronic illness affects five main neighborhoods. The most common chronic disease is diabetes and obesity in the Bronx. The causes of the high rise of diabetes and obesity condition I Bronx New York is a lifestyle, poor habits of feeding. A half of the population of Bronx New York is reported to have chronic diseases this far much higher than countries America, Africa, and Caucasians. Junk food and calories intake are also highly consumed in the Bronx, vegetables, fruits are hardly available, and when they are, they are more expensive.

Importance of religion in Persepolis Research Paper

Importance of religion in Persepolis - Research Paper Example The book gives an account of the religious rule in Iran with great sensitivity. ‘Persepolis’ is an autobiographical account of the author, Marjane Satrapi who had witnessed the transition of Iran from the monarchy to the religiously fanatic state under Khomeini. The book is written in two sequels. While the first part gives detailed account of social and religious changes, the second part gives account of her disillusionment with her country in the post revolution time, when she comes back from Europe to pursue higher studies in Iran. The book is unique in its understanding of the Islamic religion as seen through the eyes of a child and succinctly conveys the horror and fears of common man. Persepolis is distinct in its pictorial depiction and textual content that accurately capture religious fanaticism and how it impacts common men and their dreams. The paper would discuss the role and importance of religion in Persepolis and defines various characters and how people in teract with each other under new regime, headed by the religious leaders, Khomeini. The author has sensitively portrayed the changing socio-religious paradigms of Islamic revolution in Iran through graphics which she had drawn herself. The early childhood of the author was spent in modern society which enjoyed the amenities and lived in a free society that was not constrained by religious dictums or fanatic religious guidelines that suppressed the voice of women.

Aviation Safety Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Aviation Safety - Essay Example However, various factors interfere with the required level of a pilot’s concentration. First, these pilots face irregular schedules from day to day. The schedules are also intensive in terms of the work involved, which makes it hard to get adequate time to relax their body and mind. Consequently, they succumb to strenuous physical and mental conditions, which hinder them from maintaining aviation safety. They, for example, may fail to get enough sleep, thus getting overwhelmed when flying the plane. This can cause the pilot to lose control of the plane, leading to an airplane crash. Fatigue, also poses a considerable threat to aviation safety. It minimizes the pilot’s ability to maintain normal functions, either mentally or physically. They tend to be short of strength, which leads to a mental dysfunction. The pilot, for example, fails to think clearly, as fatigue leads to loss of alertness, which forces the pilot to pose a safety threat (Ferguson & Nelson, 158-159). This relates to the ability of a pilot to perceive him, as well as the aircraft with respect to the changes in the environment. These changes in the environment could have the potential of causing a threat to the entire crew, hence the ability to detect the threat, and take appropriate measures matters greatly. A change in the weather conditions, for example, may pose a risk that needs immediate attention to avert the danger. A lack of situational awareness results in poor decision-making, thus hampering aviation safety. Factors that hinder pilots and their crew from maintaining a proper situational awareness include; stress, which could be physical, social or psychological. In addition, complacency because of being overconfident with the process can also lead to major accidents. Distractions, confusion, as well as ignorance of the established procedures can also be a major cause. In

Understanding Business Research and Concepts Essay Example for Free

Understanding Business Research and Concepts Essay There are many different types of quantitative data collection instruments and sampling methods available to researchers. The ones that I have picked for the purpose of his paper are questionnaire, sampling and surveying. Each can be a value to a researcher when completed with accuracy. Validity is the degree to which an instrument measure what it is purports to measure. Invalid instruments can lead to erroneous research conclusions, which in turn can influence educational decisions. Reliability is the internal consistency or stability of the measuring device over time (Gay, 1996). A questionnaire is a series of questions ask to the subject to get responsive directly from the subjects. Questionnaires are widely used especially in descriptive survey studies. Surveying collects factual data from participants and gain opinions. The first of two research articles I picked was â€Å"A descriptive study of workplace conflict management styles,† The study has a non-experimental, descriptive, and quantitative research design, a sample size of 103 employees working in financial, IT, academic and marketing sectors were analyzed (stratified random sampling was used for the purpose). Statistical measures like Cranach’s alpha, independent samples t test, bivariate correlation, robust tests for equality of means, multiple comparisons (Turkey HSD) and chi square tests were employed to analyze the data. Research revealed that employees of fairer sex in Indian organizations used integrating, compromising and avoiding styles of interpersonal conflict handling. Dominating and obliging styles were followed by males and same was true for all the employees as their age increased. Additionally, employees having superior income and work experience were found to be less  integrative and more dominating in their management of conflict. Further, marital status of the employees also affected the conflict handling style. Interpersonal conflict understanding is crucial for smooth functioning of the organizations. Managers today are devising innovative handling techniques as conflict poses a great challenge for them. The present study can facilitate the management practitioners in understanding the concept and its implications. (Abbas, 2012). Tukey HSD test shows that there is significant difference in dominating conflict handling style only among the undergraduate and post graduate employees (p  answers are able to give you trusted results. Using qualitative research design methods is most essential when dealing with business research. Understanding how numbers and data effect a business’ growth and production are essential in determining what is making or breaking a company’s vision. Profit is understandably the primary goal of any business; however, qualitative data is most essential when determining data on what products, programs, or ideas are attractive to a potential or current customer. Using qualitative analysis will help in making the right choices and provide quality overview for necessary adjustments. One of the largest understandings of Adobe was unmet customer needs. Their belief was that even in an age of collecting data, no light can be shed on the gap of unmet customer needs. By determining what customers needed by using surveys, collecting email comments and letters, and by communicating with people and businesses, Adobe believed that it could continuously make adjustments to their programming to satisfy the needs of customers and potential customers. Keeping the questions simple, the ideas of Adobe and its future were generated through a series of questions that customers could answer. Without going too much into detail, customers could have simple questions answered, and thus be more satisfied, which in return generated more business. Some of the sample questions derived from (adobepress.com) are as follows: â€Å"Why do customers come to the business? Why do they leave? Do customers understand what the business has to offer? Do customers want what the business has to offer? Is there anything customers want from the business that it is not providing? When analytics data shows areas of concern—for example, high drop-off rates, repeat page views, and so on—what are the reasons for the customers’ actions? Which product or service is most important to customers? The above questions were a qualitative aspect design in an attempt to conduct research and analyze that research to better serve the customer. Providing customers with a questionnaire template, allowed for millions of  reviews and feedback. Taking this research and feedback allowed Adobe to make adjustments where needed and ultimately provide the customer and or business with a better product. Updating and revamping programming through technological advancements has been key to the Adobe enterprise when satisfying its customers. The desire and key aspect of successful qualitative research is being able to see ones business and products through the eyes of the customer. When one puts his/herself in this predicament, one will see the significance of such important research and designs methods as in qualitative research analysis. References Abbas, S. M. (2012, Jul-dec). A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY OF WORKPLACE CONFLICT MANAGEMENT STYLES IN INDIAN ORGANIZATIONS. Retrieved from ProQuest: http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/docview/1524709477?pq-origsite=summon LUND, D. A. (2013). Laird Statistics. Retrieved from Descriptive and Inferential Statistics: https://statistics.laerd.com/aboutus.php Troshani, I.R. (2007, Oct-Dec 98-105,107-111). Drivers and Inhibitors to XBRL Adoption: A Qualitative Approach to Build a Theory in Under-Researched Areas. Retrieved from International Journal of E-Business Research: http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.apollolibrary.com/docview/222302520?pq-origsite=summon

Consumption Behaviour of Students

Consumption Behaviour of Students Chapter One Introduction 1.1. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY 1.1.1 Consumption Behaviour Definition If it is said that marketing in true sense is the conclusion of social culture of post modern consumer culture (Firat, 1993) then an immense burden and responsibility has been imposed to determine the conditions and meanings of life for the future (Firat and Venkatesh, 1993). This life which is dealing with meeting unlimited demands with limited resources in hand and planning to secure future by making savings. So keeping this in view the consumption by individuals is really critical to full fill the needs and to secure the future. So in view of this consumption is definitely a focal point of present social and economic world. And that consumption in return definitely triggers a primary marketing concern of probability to repurchase a product regardless of its type (Peter Olson, 1990). Although consumption is as old as human history and has passed through plenty of phases but even in todays world the repurchase of items is the core priority of sellers. No matter that repurchase is o f basic necessity item or luxury product or whether it is matter of mobile connection or someone is talking about E-Banking or it is making flight reservation, every company tried its level best that a consumer should repeatedly purchase its product. The definition of consumption given by Peter and Olson (1990) is â€Å"use of product.† Peter and Olson (1990) are also of the opinion that it is not easy to define or to comprehend the meaning of consumption as there is a vast difference in the nature of various products and services. Even in this age of Information Technology and Globalization era the meaning of product (includes both goods and services) varies from culture to culture and it keeps on changing from one country to another. If a commodity or service is considered as necessity in one region, in other part of the world it may be categorized as luxury. But despite all these limitations researchers and authors still gave some comprehensive and compact definition of consumption. The idea of consumption defined by Webb (1993) in the following words â€Å"Consumption is the evaluating, buying, using and disposing of  products and services.† But like other fields of study this topic also remained under debate by variety of scholars and researchers in all parts of the world. The word of consumption attracted the attention of researchers and marketers who kept on trying to comprehend the meanings of this idea of â€Å"consumption†. While reviewing books and literature another good and wide-range definition of consumption given by Caru and Cova (2007) in the following words â€Å"Consumption is an activity that involves a production of meaning,  as well as field of symbolic exchanges.† The author elaborates this definition by mentioning that consumers do not consume products but they consume the image and meanings associated with the product and they think that it is mandatory that an object or services should fulfil certain functions. Those functions should meet and better to exceed customers expectation. If it failed to meet their anticipation then they will drop the idea of repurchase of that particular product or in case of services they will avoid to consume or avail that particular service. Simultaneously it is also said that consumption behaviour also refers to single use of a product like a soft-drink can or one can consume a product repeatedly like mobile phone or automobile. This concept of consumption behaviour also covers the issue of disposing off a product ( (Noel, 2009). Like in case of soft drink can or other single used items a general trend emerged over a period of time is that customers prefer those products whose packaging is reusable or can be recycled. But in case of mobile, automobiles, computers customers often sell those products after making multiple use of it. Consumption deals with the variety of question as it is mentioned by Schiffman and Kanuk (2007) like what to buy, when to buy, why to buy, from where to buy, how frequently they should buy, and the question of evaluation that purchase. Simultaneously the impact of evaluation on future purchase and disposing it off are also two important concerns of consumer. 1.1.2 Types of Consumption Schifman and Kanuk (2007) also highlighted two different kinds of consuming entities which deal with the consumption behaviour. The first term is personal consumption which can be defined as when good or services are bought for personal use , for household consumption or to exchange it with someone in shape of a gift. In the mentioned contexts the products are brought for final use by individuals who are referred as end users or ultimate consumers. The second category of consumers is termed as organizational consumption. It includes purchases made by profit and non-profit businesses, government agencies, and institution, all of which must buy products, equipment and services in order to run their organizations. Although both mentioned categories are of great importance but in this writing my main objective will be personal consumption. As consumption by end user is the most pervasive of all types of consumer behaviour as it involves every individual, of every age and background, in the role of either customer or user or both (Schifman and Kanuk 2007). It has been revealed from prior consumer spending studies that individuals consume in a specific way and that particular consumption behaviour is in practice due to certain factors like life style, self-image, upbringing and family structure (Martin Bush, 2000; Penman McNeill, 2008). There are some other factors which influence the Consumption Behaviour of young consumers which are parents and grandparents (McNeal 1997), parents income (Page Ridgway, 2001) and parents decision making style (Jay 2005; Elder, 1969). The mentioned factors highlighted the multi-dimensional role of parents. But the role of brands (Page Ridgway, 2001; Doston Hyatt, 2005; Bacca, 2005), consumer socialization (Razak 2003; Gil 2007; Gronhoj, 2007) and advertising (Bacca, 2005; Spero, 2004) may also not be neglected. 1.1.3. World Consumption Statistics The word â€Å"consumption† is synonym to â€Å"spending† or â€Å"expenditure†. So using this synonym, in order to quantify the consumer consumption into US $ following table best explains consumption in different parts of the world. The mentioned figures are for the year 2009. From the above table it can be easily inferred that consumers spend US $ 34,050 billion on mentioned below categories. This amount when converted in trillion it becomes almost US $ 34 trillion. This huge spending is almost 11 times more than USA total budget figure which was exactly 3.1 Trillions (http://www.whitehouse.govt, 2009). So this huge consumption creates my interest to study the factors which are reason of this huge spending. From the above table it is evident that consumer consumption in Asia Pacific is at number 3. Such a high consumption is of great interest for not only academicians but also for marketers. 1.1.4. Malaysian Public university students Consumption Behaviour According to Ministry of Higher Education website (accessed on 2011) there are total twenty public and twenty four private universities in Malaysia. The total enrolment according to MOHE (2007) in public universities is 382,997 Out of this total number 247,881 students which becomes almost 65% registered in undergraduate degree programs. It is consensus by Li, Jiang, An, Shen and Jin (2009) Komarraju, Karau and Ramayah (2007), Penman and McNeill (2008) and Feltham (1998) all are agreed that Young Consumers who are also called as Geberation Y are students. It is also agreed that young consumers fall within the age bracket of 18-24 years. As fas as Malaysia is concerned the total population of Malaysian Youngsters in 2007 was around 5 million which was almost 19% of total Malaysian population (Euromonitor International, 2010). Zainurin, Ahmed and Ghingold (2007) focus on the Malaysian young consumers attitude towards shopping malls. It is highlighted by the authors that Young Malaysian s spent a significant proportion of their monthly expenditures in shopping malls. The sources of income highlighted by Zainurin et. al. (2007) are scholarship or study loan, sponsored by parents, self sponsored and others. But Kamaruddin and Mokhlis (2003) mentioned that the major proportion of spending by young consumers is on clothes, make-up, food, sports equipment and entertainment. In the same article Kamaruddin and Mokhlis (2003) discussed young consumers consultation with parents and concluded that Chinese young consumers as compare to Malay are less likely to interact with their parents. But in case of Indians they are more likely to interact with their parents and less likely to interact with peers in consumption matters. But it will be of great interest to find out that what is consumption behaviour of Malaysian young consumers. As it is mentioned in a report compiled by PricewaterhouseCoopers (2004/2005) Malaysian households spent their high percentage of income on food, groceries and personal care items. But less had been researched on consumption behaviour of young consumers in Malaysia. The Malaysian young consumers is now well aware of products as they are more exposed to Information Technology. Their information due to frequent use of internet along various other factors like socialization, advertising, etc. establishes good awareness of marketing strategies among them. This trend of spending by Malaysian young consumer needs to be further explored. 1.2. Problem Statement As it is mentioned earlier that according to Euromonitor International 2010 the Malaysian Generation Y is about 5 million in 2007. This is also evident from above discussion that Generation Y has more disposable income (Eisner, 2005; Hongjun, 2006; XU, 2007; Henrie Taylor, 2009) to spend on variety of products. So keeping in view, the above mentioned facts Generation Y is a lucrative market for producers. Obviously their consumption behaviour is influenced by different factors and variables. It should be interesting to explore the main contributors towards consumption behaviour of Malay Generation Y. The industry like electronics, telecom, consumer products etc. whether fulfil their requirements or do they still fail to meet this Malay Generation Y expectations. It is really of great concern to study that the consumer skills or knowledge which they acquire during their childhood and teenage whether lasts with them for long time or does it keeps on changing during their adulthood. So through this study, I intend to highlight the factors and variables that influence the consumption behaviour of Malay Generation Y, which is relatively under-researched in Malaysia. 1.3. Study Objectives The general objective of this research proposal is: To identify general consumption behaviour of Malaysian public university students registered in undergraduate degree program. Whereas under the light of primary objective following are other objectives which will be achieved: To explore differences in the consumption behaviour among the three communities Malay, Chinese and Indians. To determine factors that influence consumption behaviour of Malaysian public university undergraduate students. To prepare recommendation for developing marketing strategies for Malaysian public university students. 1.4. Research Questions RQ. 1. What is the consumption behaviour of Malaysian public university students registered in undergraduate degree program? RQ. 2. What are the differences in consumption behaviour among all three communities i.e. Malay, Chinese and Indians? RQ. 3. How significant each factor in influencing consumption behaviour of Malaysian public university students? RQ. 4. What are good recommendations to develop marketing strategies for Malaysian public university students? 1.5. Significance of the Study It has been estimated by US Census Bureau (2010) that more than 17 % of total world population falls within the age bracket of 15-24 years. This age bracket is about 1.14 billion and it was mentioned by Xu (2007) that this age bracket is wealthiest group. As far as Malaysia is concerned, according to Euromonitor International (2010) the population among this age bracket was 5 million in 2007 which became almost 19% of total population. This age bracket normally are part of universities. It is mentioned by Walsh and Mitchell (2005) that education improves analytical skill so through this study I intend to study the students registered in variety of educational degrees from certification/diploma to PhD programs so that their consumption behaviour can be explored. This particular group has more disposable income (Eisner, 2005; Hongjun, 2006; XU, 2007;Henrie Taylor, 2009) as compare to the generation of parents and grandparents. Simultaneously they have less saving spirit as compare to Generation X. To study the consumption behaviour of Generation Y is of great interest as most of the Malaysian studies conducted in shopping malls and authors always studied the way this age group shop. In addition to this they are always studied by combining with teensor tweens. So through this study I will solely study consumption behaviour of Malaysian Generation Y. 1.5.1. Academic Perspective So far lot of studies had been conducted about the behaviour and attitude of Malaysian consumers in shopping malls like grocery shopping by Miranda and Jegasothy, a study of Malaysians behaviour in shopping malls conducted by Zainurin et. al. (2007) etc. But I failed to find any study which is solely targeting Malaysian young consumers. There are studies where main focus was exploring single variable like television viewing by Ghani (2004), culture studied in context of service quality by Kueh and Voon (2007), ethics in consumption studied by Chai and Lung (2009). In the light of above mentioned facts the main focus of this study will be consumption behaviour of Malaysian young consumers. The study will be a food for thought for academicians which will further enhance the existing body of knowledge on the consumption behaviour of young Malaysian consumers. The significance of factors that influence consumption behaviour of young consumers definitely opens new horizons and helps the researchers to broaden the scope from studying attitudes of young consumers in shopping malls to the general consumption of Malaysian young consumers. 1.5.2. Industry Perspective Young consumers are always a great mystery for producers of products. It is really challenging to fulfil their fast changing taste, needs and choices. This study will definitely give a more coherent and clear picture of the factors that influence young Malaysian consumers consumption behaviour. Through this study it will be explored that how Malaysian Generation Y undergo the four steps mentioned in the definition of consumption behaviour which are pre-purchase evaluation, finalizing and making purchase of product, using of product and disposing off product. Through this study the consumption behaviour among three ethnic groups of Malaysia will be explored so that a clear and specific distinction of consumption behaviour among these three groups can be researched which will definitely useful for marketers for developing marketing strategies. Chapter two 2.1. Literature Review For this study I would like to start my discussion by highlighting the importance of marketing. 2.1.1 Marketing and its Importance In Forbes it is mentioned by Trout (2006) that it has been long ago that Peter Drucker, the father of business consulting, made a very profound observation that has been lost in the sands of time which is: Because the purpose of business is to create a customer, the business enterprise has twoand only twobasic functions: marketing and innovation. Marketing and innovation produce results; all the rest are costs. Marketing is the distinguishing, unique function of the business. This concept of marketing is far beyond offering and creating of products and services. Its a matter of customer creation. It deals that how relationship can be established with customer and the ways through which these relationships can be strengthen. It also addresses to certain other critical issues like; How a loyal customer can be created? How product inclusive of goods and services can be innovated? Before discussing this concept in detail it is better to present certain definitions of marketing: Marketing in the words of Kotler, Armstrong, Ang, Leong, Tan, Hon-Ming (2009): â€Å"The process by which companies create value for customers and build strong customer realtionships in order to capture value from customers in return.† Another definition of Marketing given by American Marketing Association mentioned by Cooper and Schindler (2006) is: â€Å"It is an organizational function and a set of processes forcreating, communicating and delivering value to customers and formanaging customer relationships in ways that benefits the organizationand its stake holders† Aaker, Kumar and Day (2001) define marketing in the following words: Marketing is the process of planning and executing the conception, pricing, promotion and distribution of ideas, goods and services to create exchanges that satisfy individual and organizational objectives. The marketing concept requires customer satisfaction rather than profit maximization. It is evident from all mentioned definitions that customer is the main focus of each producer and service provider. As it is highlighted by Levitt in 1960 that industry should focus customer- satisfaction process rather than a goods producing process. He emphasized that all producers should understand this philosophy as industry begins with the customers and his/her needs not with the patents or copyrights, neither it starts with raw material or a selling skill. The idea which was presented around 50 years back is still valid and nowadays this main issue is a core concern by all the companies. The Druckers philosophy about business enterprise is very well comprehend by saying that marketing and innovation are two basic functions of business. The idea of marketing keeps on emphasizing that how customers confidence can be won. The companies from USA to Australia, the organizations operating in Africa, the enterprises offering their products in Asia Pacific and regardless of product variety as well as geographic location all are trying hard to satisfy the fast ever changing consumer needs, wants and requirements. Peter and Olson (2008) highlighted that companies are making changes to serve their customers. They have highlighted three reasons of these changes. The first reason of bringing the changes is the dramatic success of Japanese companies such as Toyota and Sony who give ample attention to their consumers and give them value-laden [5] products. This idea spurred other companies philosophies and influence them to prioritize customers taste, needs and wants. The second major reason is the dramatic increase in the quality of consumers and marketing research. In the past although companies conduct surveys and receive feedback from customers which was occasional and not so frequent. But today Information Technology made it easy for retailers and manufacturers to keep the track of customer reactions towards product and services. The third main reason of prioritizing customers taste is the development of internet as marketing tool. As internet is a tool to through which information about products can be shared with vast majority. 2.1.2. Consumer Behaviour Variety of writers like Kotler (2008), Engel, Black and Miniard (1995), Mclver and Naylor (1986), mentioned that understanding and adapting to customer motivation and behaviour is not an option but it is life blood for the survival of companies in this modern world. And this term or subject bring tremendous change in organizational set up. According to McNeal (1982, p. 8) â€Å"consumer behaviour is the preparation for purchase, the purchase act and the use and disposal of those things purchased.† McNeal (1982) also highlighted the three stages for the act of consuming which are (1) pre purchase behaviour, (2) purchase behaviour, (3) post purchase behaviour. The author mentioned that most of the time researchers or writers overlook pre purchase behaviour but that is the stage which cannot and should not be overlooked. While defining â€Å"consumer† author elaborated that consumer is the person who undergo through all mentioned three stages for his benefit or for the benefit of others. So in consumer behaviour the three stages mentioned by McNeal (1982) are integral. And whenever a consumer spends money whether on good or on services he/she has to undergo these three stages. Another definition of consumer behaviour given by East (1997) â€Å"consumer behaviour is about human responses in a commercial world; how and why people buy and use products (include both goods and services), how they react to prices and other promotional tools and what underline mechanisms operate to help and hinder consumption.† 2.1.3. Consumer Behaviour: Bridge the Gap between Producer and Consumer Above mentioned definitions, considered the discipline of Consumer Behaviour as a bridge between producers and customers/consumers. Like commercial world where producers advertise and share the information about the products they are offering to the market and response shown by the customers or consumers can be positive or negative. The positive response of the customer or consumers resulted in the shape of increasing sales, revenue for the company, satisfaction and trust on a particular or all products by a company. But a negative attitude can be like not purchasing the product of a company, shown distrust or sharing negative beliefs about a companys product to others. Simultaneously, the definition also shed light on another important aspect help to study the mechanisms, behaviour or attitude of customers or consumers under the influence of which they stop buying the product or any change in the attitude of customers/consumers towards a product. After discussing the definitions of Marketing and Consumer Behaviour one thing is evident that creation of value for producers and marketers are of core concern. This creation of value is integral and most critical phenomenon for marketers. Value is defined by the customer not by the supplier in the factory or it can also be defined that value is not what the producer puts in but what the customers get out (Khalifa, 2004). So this creation of value should be addressed and deal professionally as if it fail to meet or exceed customers satisfaction than he/she will jump to alternate or competitor. 2.2. Consumption Behaviour in Different parts of The World Consumption is lifeblood of each individual. Consumption can be termed as a process or a phase through which each and every individual of each nation has to undergo (Raijas, Lehtinen, Leskinen, 2010; Kamaruddin Mokhlis, 2003) or consumption is a mean to express and create self identity (Phau Woo, 2008) or consumption is ruled by sports celebrities (Dix, Phau, Pougnet, 2010). So a lot of factors that influence consumption are researched, studied and comprehended in variety of studies. How individuals undergo consumption in different parts of the world are mentioned below: 2.2.1. Consumption Behaviour: American and Canadian Perspective It is highlighted by Moschis and Churchill (1978) that early sociologists speculated that young people learn most of the basics of consumption from their parents. It is interestingly a very valid fact even in this age of information technology and in this world which is called as global village. Parents are still considered as the most valuable, reliable and modest source of knowledge regarding consumption behaviour. Even young consumers not only consider them as ready source of knowledge but even when young consumers start living alone they still consult their parents whenever they have to make any purchases. It was highlighted by Feltham (1998) that primary groups have stronger influence on consumption. Parents are one of the most strongest part of this primary group. Generally it has been observed, researched and mentioned that generally parents are considered as strongest and comprehensive source of knowledge and they have greater influence on the consumption behaviour of their d escendents. Felthams (1998) finding that males are less likely to discuss about consumption with parents and if they do they receive lesser reinforcement but this trend is quite opposite in case of females where they openly and comfortably discuss about consumption with parents and simultaneously they receive positive feedback as well. This finding of Feltham (1998) is consistent with Moschis, Moore and Smiths (1983) results. It is mentioned by Clark, Martin and Bush (2001) that parents are role models for their children in consumption and the way parents educate their children about consumption, brand and other spending activities it lasts with them for quite a long time. 2.2.2 Consumption Behaviour: European Perspective It is highlighted by Rolfe (2005) that young consumers in UK are living with their parents and they are provided with all the necessities but the parents of this Generation Y has more disposable income as compare to the generation of 1960s and 1970s. On the basis of this factor Generation Y are more interested in Branded and expensive items. This fact is highlighted and mentioned by Gronhoj (2007). Both positive and negative experiences teach young people how to direct their future decisions on spending. At the same time, they learn that good intentions can be lost to temptation, and consumer goods and/or services may not be rationally controllable. According to Gil, Andres and Salinas (2007) repetitive consumption of brand establish a loyalty of brand among children and it last with them even when they start living alone. They stick to that brand and loyal to its features. It also mentioned that memories associated with that brand also stopped them from switching the brand. It is fact mentioned by Gil, Andres, and Salinas (2007) that when young consumers start living alone they carry the experience of consumption with them which they learn while living with their parents. They take the same learned consumption behaviour with them which is shown by their parents and which they experience during their stay with their family. As per Gronhoj (2007) young consumers not only spend increasing amounts of money on consumer goods but they exert considerable influence on the consumption choices of the rest of the family. Media through advertisement also shape up the consumption behaviour of these young consumers. Bravo, Fraj and Martinez (2007) highlighted that whenever young consumers faces some new consumption situation which they never encounter earlier they contact their parents. In most of the cases parents kept on giving them suggestions even when they start living alone. It is also realised that young consumers consult their parents more frequently when they start living alone than during their cohabitation. Even the product quality is also dependent of the parents usage, suggestion and recommendation. Schloffer, Maloles III and Chia (2009) mentioned that Generation Y is very well informed generation. They start using computer, internet and other electronic gadgets from the early part of their lives which not only enhance their knowledge for products but also it polishes their thinking capabilities. Internet is a tool for them who helped them in making purchase decisions. They are brand conscious and fashion oriented generation. But simultaneously they are criticised as poor financial planner and considered as they have very low financial skills. In Finland it has been noted and written by Raijas, Lehtinen and Leskinen (2010) that technological and economical institutions facilitate and encourage consumption by offering credit to consumers. These financial institutions are offering credit cards, mortgages, personal loans, etc. Young consumers are availing these credits facilities mainly for two reasons: one is for setting up their own homes and secondly they want to raise their social status. Consumption on mentioned factors leads this Generation Y towards increase their consumption and in some cases this consumption is more than their income which becomes critical and have adverse impact of the countrys economy. Bouzaglo and Moschis (2010) mentioned that in some countries and culture the show off becomes trend and people especially young consumers showed it in their consumptions. They purchase products which are classified as speciality products so that they can have separate identity and considered as status oriented and fashion driven. But in countries like France it is the culture that money and possessions should be kept in secrecy. It is also mentioned by Bouzaglo and Moschis (2010) that in case of dislocated families young consumers heavily rely on peer communications and media. In this case the important role of parental communication about consumption is missing and these young inexperienced consumers may lead towards excess consumption. 2.2.3. Consumption Behaviour: Asian Perspective According to Hongjune (2005) young consumers always try to experience new things. They are very experiential and innovative. When they are associated to a group of friends then their liking and disliking should be aligned with their peers. If they failed to do so then they have feeling that they will be dropped by their peers. Even in purchasing products they are very careful about the groups opinion with regard to the brand, colour, and features of product. Simultaneously in Singapore it is mentioned by Hongjune (2005) that Generation Y of Singapore has seven pockets. Parents, grandparents from maternal and paternal side and now part time work is also considered as respectable source of income. The income from part time work is sometimes saved but most of the time it has been observed that they kept of spending and the saving spirit is not like their parents or grandparents. Hsu and Chang (2006) on the basis of findings by Moschis and Churchill (1978) mentioned that socialization has an enormous impact on the consumption behaviour of individuals. There are three important and integral socialization agents which are parents, peers and media. Among these three parents are considered as one of the most critical and

Teen Smoking :: essays research papers

Teen Smoking Teen smoking. Those two words mean a lot of things to a lot of different people. To some it means nothing. They are just two meaningless words found under T and S in the dictionary. To others it is as if these words symbolize some sort of treason or crime against society. Yet to others it is just another stereotype to be placed under. And to some it is a salvation. An escape. Unfortunately I am writing this paper so you will get my positions on teen smoking rather than other peoples. Teen smoking gathers a lot of emotions when I think about it. It makes me very angry sometimes. My first draft of this was good but I saw myself getting angry and lashing out on everyone, so I revised it. But enough of that, I find teen smoking to be a very controversial subject. To be completely honest with you I am smoking right now as I am writing this. Obviously I am a smoker. I am 17 years old and I am a smoker. In the late 1990’s, the statistics showed that approximately 25% of teens smoke. That’s one out of every four teenagers. High school is a tough time for teens. These years are critical to a teens future. This explains why a vast majority of smokers start at 16 years or younger with the most common age being 14 years old(freshman). It has also been proven also that teens who score lower in school smoke more than higher scoring students do. It seems that everyone smokes in our school. Our school is overrun with smokers. It is right now at least 50% smokers and 65% if you count the people who will smoke before their high school career is up. We practically encourage it. I mean Fireman’s Field practically condones teen smoking. Teen smoking is defiantly a problem in our school, as well as schools all over the United States. I feel that teen smoking is a huge problem. I feel that too many teenagers smoke cigarettes. It is something that needs to get dealt with. But before I get into that I should probably start with the causes of teen smoki ng. There are several factors that start teens on smoking cigarettes. There has to be considering that over 1 million new teenagers will start smoking annually. The most common is peer pressure. Teen Smoking :: essays research papers Teen Smoking Teen smoking. Those two words mean a lot of things to a lot of different people. To some it means nothing. They are just two meaningless words found under T and S in the dictionary. To others it is as if these words symbolize some sort of treason or crime against society. Yet to others it is just another stereotype to be placed under. And to some it is a salvation. An escape. Unfortunately I am writing this paper so you will get my positions on teen smoking rather than other peoples. Teen smoking gathers a lot of emotions when I think about it. It makes me very angry sometimes. My first draft of this was good but I saw myself getting angry and lashing out on everyone, so I revised it. But enough of that, I find teen smoking to be a very controversial subject. To be completely honest with you I am smoking right now as I am writing this. Obviously I am a smoker. I am 17 years old and I am a smoker. In the late 1990’s, the statistics showed that approximately 25% of teens smoke. That’s one out of every four teenagers. High school is a tough time for teens. These years are critical to a teens future. This explains why a vast majority of smokers start at 16 years or younger with the most common age being 14 years old(freshman). It has also been proven also that teens who score lower in school smoke more than higher scoring students do. It seems that everyone smokes in our school. Our school is overrun with smokers. It is right now at least 50% smokers and 65% if you count the people who will smoke before their high school career is up. We practically encourage it. I mean Fireman’s Field practically condones teen smoking. Teen smoking is defiantly a problem in our school, as well as schools all over the United States. I feel that teen smoking is a huge problem. I feel that too many teenagers smoke cigarettes. It is something that needs to get dealt with. But before I get into that I should probably start with the causes of teen smoki ng. There are several factors that start teens on smoking cigarettes. There has to be considering that over 1 million new teenagers will start smoking annually. The most common is peer pressure.

Research Methods Essay -- Mixed Research, Qualitative Method

Defining and Analyzing Mixed Method Johnson and Christensen (2007) describe mixed research as the third and newest research methodology paradigm. Philosophically, mixed research takes an eclectic, pragmatic, and commonsense approach, suggesting that the researcher mix quantitative and qualitative in a way that works best for the given research question that is studied in a particular context. Mixed research uses both deductive and inductive methods, obtains both quantitative and qualitative data, attempts to corroborate and complement findings and takes a balanced approach to research. Researchers used the term mixed method to refer to all procedures collecting and analyzing both quantitative and qualitative data in the context of a single study. According to Johnson and Onwuegbuzie (2004), some researchers have taken issue with the term mixed methods to describe research designs that consciously blend both approaches within or across the stages of the research process. Researchers seeking associations between primarily quantitative biophysical and primarily qualitative socio cultural data, including environmental and natural resource anthropologists can look to mixed method research designs for structured and tested integrative processes. Such designs have been used to augment traditional methods for assessing and monitoring the impacts of recreation and tourism on the physical environment (Mackay, 2004). Defining and Analyzing Qualitative Method On the other hand, Shank (2002) defines qualitative research as a form of systematic empirical inquiry into meaning. By systematic he means, planned, ordered, and public, following rules, agreed upon by members of the qualitative research community. By empirical, he means that thi... ...ompanying attributes of servant leader. Data Collection The self-assessment servant leadership instrument (SASL) will be converted from a master copy into SPSS 19 software a commercial server from which data will be analyzed. The researcher will use a conceptual framework for measuring servant leadership. Letters requesting permissions to conduct research will be sent to each Dean and Assistant Dean at each campus, as well as the Dean of Students. The letter will specify the research and emphasize that all participation will be selected voluntarily. Also, the individual responses will be anonymous and confidential. Concurrent mixed method data collection strategies will be employed to validate one form of data with the other to transform the data for comparison, or to address different types of questions (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2007).

Wasteland by TS Eliot :: essays papers

Wasteland by T.S. Eliot The driving force of all life is procreation and re-birth. For mankind, vegetation, the animal kingdom, the survival of the species is the dominant factor and only the fittest survive. For millennia, different races have believed that the fertility of the land depended on the sexual potency of their ruler or favour of their gods. Pagan, Roman, Greek and other gods have been invented who were believed to control the fertility of the land, such as Ceres, the Roman goddess of agriculture, on which the survival of their populations has been believed to have depended. Various superstitions and religions have further developed and become significant factors in the lives of billions of the world's population. The Waste Land takes these themes and portrays a dead land that lacks the fertility and sexual potency needed to sustain and progress life. A land void of what is needed for re-birth. The 4 life-giving elements: Earth, Air, Fire, Water. Earth is sterile; Air is turned to "brown fog"; Fire burns; Water drowns. The sexual imageries are unproductive: sex is present as a lustful functional device but lacking of the necessary fertility. Superstitions are turned to by the society in search of the answer in the form of Tarot cards and religion is a constant thread as evidenced by the recurring Biblical references and themes. In The Burial of the Dead we see that he gives us an image of the Earth as sterile, instead of being the foundation of vegetation. It is only a repository for the dead. Earth is the 1st. of the 4 natural elements. These 4 opening lines echo the "April", "root", "Lilac/flower", and "rain/shower" imagery of the 4 opening lines of The General Prologue of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. These lines are reflecting the image of life and death. Rain usually nurtures and strengthens plants and sustains them, but here we see that life even with water is slowly dying and wasting away. He later goes on to say that the trees will give no shelter and the crickets, no relief. This line comes from Ecclesiastes 12:5-7: "Also when they shall be afraid of that which is high, and fears shall be in the way, and the almond tree shall flourish, and the grasshopper shall be a burden, and desire shall fail: because man goeth to his long home, and the mourners go about the streets. Or ever the silver cord be loosed, or the golden bowl be broken, or the pitcher be broken at the fountain, or the wheel broken at the cistern.

Preschool Assessment Essay

This paper addresses the many questions the High/Scope Educational Research Foundation has received about testing four-year-olds. Our reasons for sharing this paper with early childhood practitioners, policymakers, and parents is three-fold: (a) to provide basic information about the terms and issues surrounding assessment; (b) to add an empirical and pragmatic perspective to what can sometimes be an impassioned debate; and (c) to affirm our commitment to doing what is best for young children and supporting those who develop the programs and policies that serve them. High/Scope believes child assessment is a vital and necessary component of all high quality early childhood programs. Assessment is important to understand and support young children’s development. It is also essential to document and evaluate how effectively programs are meeting their educational needs, in the broadest sense of this term. For assessment to occur, it must be feasible. That is, it must meet reasonable criteria regarding its efficiency, cost, and so on. If assessment places an undue burden on programs or evaluators, it will not be undertaken at all and the lack of data will hurt all concerned. In addition to feasibility, however, assessment must also meet the demands of ecological validity. The assessment must addresses the criteria outlined below for informing us about what children in real programs are learning and doing every day. Efficiency and ecological validity are not mutually exclusive, but must sometimes be balanced against one another. Our challenge is to find the best balance under the conditions given and, when necessary, to work toward altering those conditions. Practically speaking, this means we must continue to serve children using research-based practices, fulfill mandates to secure program resources, and improve assessment procedures to better realize our ideal. This paper sets forth the criteria to be considered in striving to make early childhood assessment adhere to these highest standards. Background The concern with assessment in the early childhood field is not new. Decades of debate are summarized in the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) publication Reaching Potentials: Appropriate Curriculum and Assessment for Young Children (Bredekamp & Rosegrant, 1992). This position statement has just been expanded in a new document titled Early Childhood Curriculum, Assessment, and Program Evaluation: Building an Effective, Accountable System in Programs for Children Birth through Age 8 (www. naeyc. org/resources/position_statements/pscape. asp). 1  What is new in this ongoing debate is the heightened attention to testing young children as a means of holding programs accountable for their learning. Assessment in the Classroom (Airasian, 2002) offers the following definitions: Assessment is the process of collecting, synthesizing, and interpreting information to aid classroom decision-making. It includes information gathered about pupils, instruction, and classroom climate. Testing is a formal, systematic procedure for gathering a sample of pupils’ behavior. The results of a test are used to make generalizations about how pupils would have performed in similar but untested behaviors. Testing is one form of assessment. It usually involves a series of direct requests to children to perform, within a set period of time, specific tasks designed and administered by adults, with predetermined correct answers. By contrast, alternative forms of assessment may be completed either by adults or children, are more open-ended, and often look at performance over an extended period of time. Examples include objective observations, portfolio analyses of individual and collaborative work, and teacher and parent ratings of children’s behavior. The current testing initiative focuses primarily on literacy and to a lesser extent numeracy. The rationale for this initiative, advanced in the No Child Left Behind Act and supported by the report of the National Reading Panel (2000), is that young children should acquire a prescribed body of knowledge and academic skills to be ready for school. Social domains of school readiness, while also touted as essential in a series of National Research Council reports (notably Eager to Learn, 2000a and Neurons to Neighborhoods, 2000b), are admittedly neither as widely mandated nor as â€Å"testable† as their academic counterparts. Hence, whether justified or not, they do not figure as prominently in the testing and accountability debate. This information paper responds to questions being asked of early childhood leaders about the use and misuse of testing for preschoolers 3 to 5 years old. This response is not merely a reactive gesture nor an attempt to advance and defend a specific position. Rather, the paper is intended as a resource to provide information about when and how preschool assessment in general, and testing and other forms of assessment in particular, can be appropriately used to inform policy decisions about early childhood programming. As a framework for providing this information, High/Scope accepts two realities. First, testing is, will be, and in fact always has been, used to answer questions about the effectiveness of early childhood interventions. Since early childhood programs attempt to increase children’s knowledge and skills in specific content areas, evaluators have traditionally used testing, along with other assessment strategies, to determine whether these educational objectives have been achieved. Second, program accountability is essential, and testing is one efficient means of measuring it. Numerous research studies show that high quality programs can enhance the academic and lifetime achievement of children at risk of school failure. This conclusion has 2 resulted in an infusion of public and private dollars in early education. It is reasonable to ask whether this investment is achieving its goal. Testing can play a role in answering this accountability question. With this reality as a background, this information paper proceeds to address two questions. First, given the current pervasive use of testing and its  probably expansion, when and under what conditions can this type of assessment be used appropriately with preschool-age children? That is, what characteristics of tests and their administration will guarantee that we â€Å"do no harm† to children and that we â€Å"do help† adults acquire valid information? Second, given that even the most well-designed tests can provide only limited data, how can we maximize the use of non-test assessments so they too add valuable information over and above that obtained through standardized testing procedures? General Issues in Assessment Uses of Child Assessment  Assessment can provide four types of information for and about children, and their parents, teachers, and programs. Child assessment can: 1. Identify children who may be in need of specialized services. Screening children to determine whether they would benefit from specific interventions is appropriate when parents, teachers, or other professionals suspect a problem. In these cases, assessments in several related domains are then usually administered to the child. In addition, data from parents and other adults involved with the child are considered in determining a diagnosis and course of treatment. 2. Plan instruction for individuals and groups of children. Assessment data can be used by teachers to support the development of individual children, as well as to plan instructional activities for the class as a whole. In addition, information on developmental progress can and should be shared with parents to help them understand what and how their children are learning in the classroom and how they can extend this learning at home. 3. Identify program improvement and staff development needs. Child assessments can provide formative evaluation data that benefit program and staff development. Findings can point to areas of the curriculum that need further articulation or resources, or areas where staff need professional development. If children in the classroom as a whole are not making progress in certain developmental domains, it is possible that the curriculum needs revision or that teachers need some additional training. In conducting formative evaluations, child data are best combined with program data that measure overall quality, fidelity to curriculum implementation standards, and specific teaching practices. 4. Evaluate how well a program is meeting goals for children. It is this fourth purpose, sometimes called outcome or summative evaluation, that is the primary focus of this paper. 3 Note that it is the program, not the child, who should be held accountable. Although data may be collected on individual children, data should be aggregated to determine whether the program is achieving its desired outcomes. These outcomes may be defined by the program itself and/or by national, state, or district standards. How the outcomes are measured is determined by the inextricable link between curriculum and assessment. Ideally, if a curriculum has clear learning objectives, those will drive the form and content of the measures. Conversely, thoughtful design of an appropriate assessment tool can encourage program developers to consider what and how adults should be teaching young children. Reliability and Validity Any formal assessment tool or method should meet established criteria for validity and reliability (American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, & National Council of Measurement in Education, 1999). Reliability is defined as how well various measurements of something agree with each other, for example, whether a group of similar test items or two observers completing the same items have similar results. Validity has several dimensions. Content or face validity refers to how well an instrument measures what it claims to measure; ecological validity refers to the authenticity of the measurement context; and construct validity deals with the measure’s conceptual integrity. In assessing young children, two aspects of validity have special importance—developmental validity and predictive validity. Developmental validity means that the performance items being measured are developmentally suitable for the children being assessed. Predictive validity means the measure can predict children’s later school success or failure, as defined by achievement test scores or academic placements (on-grade, retained in grade, or placed in special education) during the elementary grades. Over the longer term, predictive validity can even refer to such outcomes as adult literacy, employment, or avoiding criminal activity. In Principles and Recommendations for Early Childhood Assessments, the National Education Goals Panel (1998) noted that â€Å"the younger the child, the more difficult it is to obtain reliable and valid assessment data. It is particularly difficult to assess children’s cognitive abilities accurately before age 6† (p. 5). Meisels (2003) claims â€Å"research demonstrates that no more than 25 per cent of early academic or cognitive performance is predicted from information obtained from preschool or kindergarten tests† (p. 29). Growth in the early years is rapid, episodic, and highly influenced by environmental supports. Performance is influenced by children’s emotional and motivational states, and by the assessment conditions themselves. Because these individual and situational factors affect reliability and validity, the Panel recommended that assessment of young children be pursued with the necessary safeguards and caveats about the accuracy of the decisions that can be drawn from the results. These procedures and cautions are explored below. 4 Testing. Appropriate Uses of Testing Standardized tests are used to obtain information on whether a program is achieving its desired outcomes. They are considered objective, time- and cost-efficient, and suitable for making quantitative comparisons. Testing can provide valid data when used appropriately and matched to developmental levels. Moreover, tests can act as teaching tools by providing a window into what children already know and where they need more time, practice, and/or help to improve. Creating a valid assessment for young children is a difficult task. It must be meaningful and authentic, evaluate a valid sample of information learned, be based on performance standards that are genuine benchmarks, avoid arbitrary cut-off scores or norms, and have authentic scoring. The context for the test should be rich, realistic, and enticing (Wiggins, 1992). It is therefore incumbent upon the creators of assessment tools to design instruments that—unlike artificial drills— resemble natural performance. If these conditions are met, young children are more likely to recognize what is being asked of them, thus increasing the reliability and validity of the results. Criteria of Reliable and Valid Preschool Tests Both the content and administration of tests must respect young children’s developmental characteristics. Otherwise the resulting data will be neither reliable nor valid. Worse, the testing experience may be negative for the child and perhaps the tester as well. Further, the knowledge and skills measured in the testing situation must be transferable and applicable in real-world settings. Otherwise the information gathered has no practical value. To produce meaningful data and minimize the risk of creating a harmful situation, tests for preschool-age children should satisfy the following criteria: 1. Tests should not make children feel anxious or scared. They should not threaten their selfesteem or make them feel they have failed. Tests should acknowledge what children know—or have the potential to learn—rather than penalizing them for what they do not know. 2. Testing should take place in, or simulate, the natural environment of the classroom. It should avoid placing the child in an artificial situation. Otherwise, the test may measure the child’s response to the test setting rather than the child’s ability to perform on the test content. 3. Tests should measure real knowledge in the context of real activities. In other words, the test activities as well as the test setting should not be contrived. They should resemble children’s ordinary activities as closely as possible, for example, discussing a book as the adult reads it. Furthermore, tests should measure broad concepts rather than narrow skills, for example, alphabetic and letter knowledge sampled from this domain rather than familiarity with specific letters chosen by the adult. 5 4. The tester should be someone familiar to the child. Ideally, the person administering the test would be a teacher or another adult who interacts regularly with the child. When an outside researcher or evaluator must administer the test, it is best if the individual(s) spend time in the classroom beforehand, becoming a familiar and friendly figure to the children. If this is not feasible, the appearance and demeanor of the tester(s) should be as similar as possible to adults with whom the child regularly comes in contact. 5. To the extent possible, testing should be conducted as a natural part of daily activities rather than as a time-added or pullout activity. Meeting this criterion helps to satisfy the earlier standards of a familiar place and tester, especially if the test can be administered in the context of a normal part of the daily routine (for example, assessing book knowledge during a regular reading period). In addition, testing that is integrated into standard routines avoids placing an additional burden on teachers or detracting from children’s instructional time. 6. The information should be obtained over time. A single encounter, especially if brief, can produce inaccurate or distorted data. For example, a child may be ill, hungry, or distracted at the moment of testing. The test is then measuring the child’s interest or willingness to respond rather than the child’s knowledge or ability with respect to the question(s) being asked. If timedistributed measurements are not feasible, then testers should note unusual circumstances in the situation (e. g. , noise) or child (e. g. , fatigue) that could render single-encounter results invalid and should either schedule a re-assessment or discount the results in such cases. 7. When repeated instances of data gathering are not feasible (e.g. , due to time or budgetary constraints), an attempt should be made to obtain information on the same content area from multiple and diverse sources. Just as young children have different styles of learning, so they will differentially demonstrate their knowledge and skills under varying modes of assessment. For example, a complete and accurate measure of letter knowledge may involve tests that employ both generative and recognition strategies. 8. The length of the test should be sensitive to young children’s interests and attention spans. If a test is conducted during a regular program activity (e. g. , small-group time), the test should last no longer than is typical for that activity. If it is necessary to conduct testing outside regular activities, the assessment period should last 10–20 minutes. Further, testers should be sensitive to children’s comfort and engagement levels, and take a break or continue the test at another day and time if the child cannot or does not want to proceed. 9. Testing for purposes of program accountability should employ appropriate sampling methods whenever feasible. Testing a representative sample of the children who participate in a program avoids the need to test every child and/or to administer all tests to any one child. Sampling strategies reduce the overall time spent in testing, and minimize the chances for placing undue stress on individual children or burdening individual teachers and classrooms. 6 Alternative Child Assessment Methods Alternative forms of assessment may be used by those who have reservations about, or want to supplement, standardized tests. These other methods often fall under the banner of â€Å"authentic† assessments. They engage children in tasks that are personally meaningful, take place in real life contexts, and are grounded in naturally occurring instructional activities. They offer multiple ways of evaluating students’ learning, as well as their motivation, achievement, and attitudes. This type of assessment is consistent with the goals, curriculum, and instructional practices of the classroom or program with which it is associated (McLaughlin & Vogt, 1997; Paris & Ayres, 1994). Authentic assessments do not rely on unrealistic or arbitrary time constraints, nor do they emphasize instant recall or depend on lucky guesses. Progress toward mastery is the key, and content is mastered as a means, not as an end (Wiggins, 1989). To document accomplishments, assessments must be designed to be longitudinal, to sample the baseline, the increment, and the preserved levels of change that follow from instruction (Wolf, Bixby, Glenn & Gardener, 1991). Alternative assessment can be more expensive than testing. Like their counterparts in testing, authentic measures must meet psychometric standards of demonstrated reliability and validity. Their use, especially on a widespread scale, requires adequate resources. Assessors must be trained to acceptable levels of reliability. Data collection, coding, entry, and analysis are also time- and cost-intensive. This investment can be seen as reasonable and necessary, however, if the goal is to produce valid information. Alternative child assessment procedures that can meet the criteria of reliability and validity include observations, portfolios, and ratings of children by teachers and parents. These are described below. Observations In assessing young children, the principal alternative to testing is systematic observation of children’s activities in their day-to-day settings. Observation fits an interactive style of curriculum, in which give-and-take between teacher and child is the norm. Although careful observation requires effort, the approach has high ecological validity and intrudes minimally into what children are doing. Children’s activities naturally integrate all dimensions of their development—intellectual, motivational, social, physical, aesthetic, and so on. Anecdotal notes alone, however, are not sufficient for good assessment. They do not offer criteria against which to judge the developmental value of children’s activities or provide evidence of reliability and validity. Instead, anecdotal notes should be used to complete developmental scales of proven reliability and validity. Such an approach permits children to engage in activities any time and anywhere that teachers can see them. It defines categories of acceptable answers rather than single right answers. It expects the teacher to set the framework for children to initiate their own activities. It embraces a broad definition of child development that includes not only language and mathematics, but also initiative, social relations, physical skills, and the arts. It is culturally sensitive when teachers are trained observers who focus on objective, culturally neutral descriptions of behavior (for example, â€Å"Pat hit Bob†) rather than subjective, culturally loaded 7 interpretations (for example, â€Å"Pat was very angry with Bob†). Finally, it empowers teachers by recognizing their judgment as essential to accurate assessment. Portfolios One of the most fitting ways to undertake authentic, meaningful evaluation is through the use of a well-constructed portfolio system. Arter and Spandel (1991) define a portfolio as a purposeful collection of student work that tells the story of the student’s efforts, progress, or achievement in (a) given area(s). This collection must include student participation in selection of portfolio content, the guidelines for selection, the criteria for judging merit, and evidence of student self-reflection (p. 36). Portfolios describe both a place (the physical space where they are stored) and a process. The process provides richer information than standardized tests, involves multiple sources and methods of data collection, and occurs over a representative period of time (Shaklee, Barbour, Ambrose, & Hansford, 1997). Portfolios have additional value. They encourage two- and three-way collaboration between students, teachers, and parents; promote ownership and motivation; integrate assessment with instruction and learning; and establish a quantitative and qualitative record of progress over time (Paris & Ayres, 1994; Paulson, Paulson, & Meyer, 1991; Wolf & Siu-Runyan, 1996; Valencia, 1990). â€Å"Portfolios encourage teachers and students to focus on important student outcomes, provide parents and the community with credible evidence of student achievement, and inform policy and practice at every level of the educational system† (Herman & Winters, 1994, p. 48). The purposes for which portfolios are used are as variable as the programs that use them (Graves & Sunstein, 1993; Valencia, 1990; Wolf & Siu-Runyan, 1996). In some programs, they are simply a place to store best work that has been graded in a traditional manner. In others, they are used to create longitudinal systems to demonstrate the process leading to the products and to design evaluative rubrics for program accountability. There are also programs that merely have students collect work that is important to them as a personal, non-evaluative record of their achievements. When portfolios are not used to judge ability in some agreed-upon fashion, they are usually not highly structured and may not even include reflective pieces that demonstrate student growth and understanding. Portfolios are most commonly thought of as alternative assessments in  elementary and secondary schools. Yet they have long been used in preschools to document and share children’s progress with parents, administrators, and others. For portfolios to be used for program accountability, as well as student learning and reflection, the evaluated outcomes must be aligned with curriculum and instruction. Children must have some choice about what to include in order to feel ownership and pride. Portfolios should document the creative or problem-solving process as they display the product, encouraging children to reflect on their actions. Conversations with children about their portfolios engages them in the evaluation process and escalates their desire to demonstrate their 8 increasing knowledge and skills. Sharing portfolios with parents can help teachers connect school activities to the home and involve parents in their children’s education. Teacher Ratings Teacher ratings are a way to organize teacher perceptions of children’s development into scales for which reliability and validity can be assessed. Children’s grades on report cards are the most common type of teacher rating system. When completed objectively, report-card grades are tied to students’ performance on indicators with delineated scoring criteria, such as examinations or projects evaluated according to explicitly defined criteria. In these ways, teacher ratings can be specifically related to other types of child assessments including scores on standardized tests or other validated assessment tools, concrete and specific behavioral descriptions (e. g. , frequency of participation in group activities, ability to recognize the letters in one’s name), or global assessments of children’s traits (e. g. , cooperative, sociable, hard-working). Research shows that teacher ratings can have considerable short- and long-term predictive validity throughout later school years and even into adulthood (Schweinhart, Barnes, & Weikart, 1993). Parent Ratings Parent ratings are a way to organize parent perceptions of children’s development into scales for which reliability and validity can be assessed. Soliciting parent ratings is an excellent way for teachers to involve them as partners in the assessment of their children’s performance. The very process of completing scales can inform parents about the kinds of behaviors and milestones that are important in young children’s development. It also encourages parents to observe and listen to their children as they gather the data needed to rate their performance. An example of the use of parent ratings is the Head Start Family and Child Experiences Survey (FACES) study, in which parents’ ratings of their children’s abilities and progress were related to measures of classroom quality and child outcomes (Zill, Connell, McKey, O’Brien et al. , 2001). Conclusion Recent years have seen a growing public interest in early childhood education. Along with that support has come the use of â€Å"high stakes† assessment to justify the expense and apportion the dollars. With so much at stake—the future of our nation’s children—it is imperative that we proceed correctly. Above all, we must guarantee that assessment reflects our highest educational goals for young children and neither restricts nor distorts the substance of their early learning. This paper sets forth the criteria for a comprehensive and balanced assessment system that meets the need for accountability while respecting the welfare and development of young children. Such a system can include testing, provided it measures applicable knowledge and skills in a safe and child-affirming situation. It can also include alternative assessments, provided they too meet psychometric standards of reliability and validity. Developing and implementing a balanced approach to assessment is not an easy or inexpensive undertaking. But because we value our children and respect those charged with their care, it is an investment worth making. 9 References Airasian, P. (2 002). A ssessment in the classroom. New Y ork: Mc Graw-H ill. American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, & National Council of Measu rement in E ducation. (1 999). S tanda rds for edu cationa l and psy cholog ical testing. W ashington, DC: American Psychological Association. Arter, J. A. , & Spande l, V. (199 2). Using p ortfolios of stud ent work in instru ction and a ssessment. E ducational Measurement Issues and Practice, 36–44. Brede kamp, S. , & Rosegra nt, T. (Ed s. ) (1992 ). R eaching Potentials: Appropriate Curriculum and Assessment for Young Children . Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. Graves, D . H. , & Sun stein, B. S. (19 92). P ortfolio p ortraits . New Hampshire: Heinemann. Herma n, J. L. , & W inters, L. (199 4). Portfo lio research: A slim collection . E duca tional Lea dership , 5 2 (2), 48–55. McLa ughlin, M. , & Vogt, M . (1997) . P ortfolios in teacher education . Newark, Delaware: International Reading Association. 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(20 00a). E ager to learn : Educating our preschoo lers. W ashington, DC: National Academy P ress. National R esearch C ouncil. (20 00b). N eurons to neighborhoods: The science of early childhood development. Washington, D C: National Acad emy Press. Paris, S. G . , & Ayers, L. R . (1994) . B ecom ing reflective s tudents a nd teach ers with po rtfolios and authen tic assessment. Washington DC: American Psychological Association. Paulson, F. L. , Paulson, P. R. , & Meyer, C. A. (1991). What makes a portfolio a portfolio? E duca tional Lea dership , 48 (5), 60–63. Schweinha rt, L. J. , Barne s, H. V. , & Weika rt, D. P. (19 93). S ignificant benefits: The High/Scope Perry Preschool study through age 27 . Ypsilanti, MI: High/Sco pe Press. Shaklee, B . D. , Barb our, N. E ., Ambros e, R. , & H ansford, S. J . (1997) . D esigning and using portfolios. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Valencia , S. W. (1 990). A portfolio ap proach to classroom reading asse ssment: Th e whys, whats an d hows. T he Reading Teacher , 4 3 (4), 338–340. Wiggins, G . (1992) . Creating tests wo rth taking. E duca tional Lea dership , 4 9 (8), 26–33. Wolf, D. , Bixby, J. , Glenn, J. , & Gardner, H. (1991). To use their minds well: Investigating new forms of student assessment. In G. Gran t (Ed. ), R eview of research in education, V ol 17 ( pp. 31–74). Washington D. C. : American Educational Research Association. Wolf, K . , & Siu-Run yan, Y.(19 96). Po rtfolio purpo ses and po ssibilities. J ournal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 40 (1), 30–37. Zill, N. , Conn ell, D. , Mc Key, R. H . , O’Brien, R . et al. (2001 , January). H ead Start FACES: Longitudinal Findings on Pro gram P erforma nce, Third Progres s Report. W ashington, DC: Administration on Children, Youth and Families, U. S. Depa rtment of Health and H uman Services. 10 High/Scope Assessment Resources High/Scope has developed and validated three preschool assessment instruments. Two are for children, one focusing specifically on literacy and the other more broadly on multiple domains of development. The third measure is used to assess and improve the quality of all aspects of early childhood programs. These alternative assessments are described below. Early Literacy Assessment In the Fall of 2004, High/Scope will release the Early Literacy Assessment (ELA), which will evaluate the four key principles of early literacy documented in the Early Reading First Grants and the No Child Left Behind legislation: phonological awareness, alphabetic principle, comprehension, and concepts about print. Evaluation will take place in a meaningful context that is familiar to children.